How Are Cadenzas Written and Performed in Classical Concerti?

Cadenzas are among the most thrilling moments in a classical concerto, offering a spotlight for the soloist to display technical mastery and interpretive creativity. But how exactly are these passages written and performed? The answer lies in a rich interplay of composer intention, performer improvisation, and evolving stylistic conventions. In this article, we delve into the mechanics, history, and practice of cadenzas, answering the question: How are cadenzas written and performed in classical concerti?

Overview

A cadenza (plural: cadenzas or cadenze) is an extended, often florid solo passage inserted near the end of a movement in a concerto, typically following a fermata over a 6/4 chord (the I⁶₄ cadential six-four) or a dominant seventh chord. It serves as a dramatic pause before the final orchestral ritornello, allowing the soloist to elaborate on thematic material, display virtuosity, and build tension. Historically, cadenzas were either improvised by the performer or written out by the composer, and the practice has varied significantly across eras and individual works.

How It’s Notated

In scores, a cadenza is often indicated by a fermata (a bird’s-eye symbol) placed over the preceding chord, with the instruction “Cadenza” or simply leaving a blank space. In many Classical-era works, the composer leaves the exact notes unwritten, expecting the soloist to improvise. When composers do notate a cadenza, they may use smaller notes (to distinguish from the main score) or include it as an ossia (an alternative passage). For example, Mozart often sketched cadenzas in separate manuscripts, while Beethoven’s “Emperor” Concerto (Piano Concerto No. 5) includes a fully written cadenza in the first movement, though he also allowed performers to write their own. In orchestral parts, the cadenza appears as a measure with a fermata and often no notes, relying on the soloist’s skill. In modern editions, cadenzas by famous performers (e.g., Joachim’s for Beethoven’s Violin Concerto) are often printed as options, clearly marked as such.

How It’s Performed

Performance practice varies by era, style, and the individual artist. In the Baroque and early Classical periods, performers were expected to improvise cadenzas, using the thematic material of the movement as a springboard for extemporization. This tradition persisted into the Classical era; Mozart himself was a renowned improviser, and audiences eagerly anticipated his spontaneous flights in his concertos. However, as the 19th century progressed, composers began to write out cadenzas to control the musical flow and express their compositional intentions. Beethoven, while initially encouraging improvisation, later wrote cadenzas for his piano concertos (e.g., Op. 37 and Op. 58) to ensure a unified vision. Today, performers face a choice: they may perform a composer-written cadenza, a cadenza by a famous performer (e.g., Kreisler’s cadenza for Beethoven’s Violin Concerto), or improvise their own. Many contemporary soloists still improvise, particularly in historically informed performances, but others prefer the security of a prepared cadenza. The performance also involves interaction with the conductor and orchestra, who wait for the final trill or descending scale that signals the cadenza’s end, leading back to the orchestral tutti.

How It Works

Structurally, a cadenza serves as an elaborated cadential extension, postponing the final cadence. It typically begins on the dominant of the home key (or a related key) and explores harmonic tensions, modulations, and thematic fragments before resolving back to the tonic. The soloist often improvises over a pedal point or a sequence, building intensity. The cadenza’s content is guided by the movement’s themes; it may quote, develop, or contrast them. The theoretical function is to prolong the dominant, creating maximum expectation before the final resolution. In sonata-form movements, the cadenza usually appears at the end of the recapitulation, just before the closing ritornello. Its length and complexity vary: some are brief flourishes, while others are extended virtuosic showpieces. For example, the cadenza in Beethoven’s Piano Concerto No. 4 lasts over two minutes and is a fully developed improvisatory fantasia.

Origin / Etymology

The word “cadenza” derives from the Italian cadere, meaning “to fall” or “to end,” evolving from the Latin cadentia, related to cadence. In Renaissance and early Baroque music, a cadenza was simply a rhythmic or melodic ornament at a cadential point, performed by a singer or instrumentalist to elaborate the closing gesture. By the 18th century, the term came to designate the florid vocal or instrumental improvisation in a concerto or aria. In operatic arias, the equivalent is a fermata leading to a solo display, often called a cabaletta’s predecessor. The instrumental concerto adopted this practice, and by the mid-1700s, the cadenza became a standard feature, with composers like Tartini and Locatelli integrating it into their works.

Historical Context

The evolution of cadenzas reflects broader changes in musical culture. During the Baroque era, performers had considerable freedom to ornament and improvise, so cadenzas were naturally improvised. In the Classical period, the concerto became a vehicle for the soloist’s personality, and composers like Mozart and Beethoven both encouraged and circumscribed improvisation. With the rise of the public concert and the cult of the virtuoso in the 19th century, cadenzas became showcases for technical brilliance, often detached from the composer’s original material. Famous virtuosos like Paganini and Liszt wrote or improvised dazzling cadenzas. Meanwhile, composers like Brahms and Tchaikovsky continued to write full cadenzas, sometimes integrating them into the orchestral texture. In the 20th century, composers such as Bartók and Stravinsky wrote cadenzas that were fully composed integral parts, while some minimalist works avoid them altogether. Historically, the cadenza also served a political or social function as a moment of individual expression within a collective context, echoing Enlightenment ideals of personal liberty.

Defining Characteristics

Cadenzas are characterized by several defining features:

• Placement: Typically near the end of a movement, often at a fermata over a 6/4 chord.
• Solo improvisatory style: Even if written out, they often imitate improvisation with rapid scales, arpeggios, trills, and melodic ornaments.
• Thematic connection: They usually reference themes from the movement, developing or elaborating them.
• Harmonic tension: They prolong the dominant, avoiding tonic resolution until the final orchestral entry.
• Structure: Often end with a trill or a cadential flourish leading to the orchestral tutti.
• Virtuosity: Demand high technical skill, including rapid passagework, wide leaps, and intricate fingerings or bowings.

In the Romantic era, cadenzas grew longer and more dramatically intense, while in the 20th century they might be minimalist or fragmented. Genre also matters: piano concertos typically feature cadenzas with elaborate chordal and scale patterns, while violin concertos showcase double stops and harmonics.

Where You’ll Encounter It

Cadenzas are most common in Classical and Romantic concerti for piano, violin, and cello, as well as in wind concertos (flute, oboe, clarinet). They also appear in concertante works like Brandenburg Concertos (where the harpsichord improvises) and in some opera arias. In chamber works, quasi-cadenzas may appear in sonatas or trios. You will encounter written cadenzas in scores by Mozart (e.g., Piano Concerto No. 21), Beethoven (all five piano concertos, Violin Concerto), Brahms (Violin Concerto has a famous cadenza by Joachim), and Tchaikovsky (Violin Concerto has an optional cadenza). In modern performance, you might hear performers choose between different printed cadenzas or improvise their own, as in Joshua Bell’s improvisations in Mozart concertos.

Key Figures

Several composers and performers have shaped the art of the cadenza:

• W.A. Mozart: Composed formal cadenzas for many of his concertos, sometimes leaving them unwritten but providing examples in letters.
• Ludwig van Beethoven: Wrote some of the most demanding cadenzas, including for his Fourth and Fifth Piano Concertos, and encouraged performers to write their own.
• Niccolò Paganini: Revolutionized violin virtuosity with his own cadenzas, such as in his Violin Concerto No. 1.
• Franz Liszt: As a performer, his cadenzas in piano concertos were legendary for their brilliance, though many were not published.
• Joseph Joachim: Composed the standard cadenza for Brahms’ Violin Concerto, widely used today.
• Fritz Kreisler: His cadenzas for Beethoven’s Violin Concerto are famous and often heard.

Landmark Works

Certain concerti feature cadenzas that have become iconic:

• Beethoven’s Piano Concerto No. 5 (“Emperor”) – The first movement contains a written-out cadenza that is a tour de force of pianistic invention.
• Mozart’s Piano Concerto No. 23 (K. 488) – The first movement has an improvisatory cadenza that is rarely written down, but many performers use Mozart’s own notated version.
• Mendelssohn’s Violin Concerto (Op. 64) – The first movement cadenza is fully written by the composer and integrates seamlessly with the orchestra.
• Tchaikovsky’s Violin Concerto – The first movement features a short, technically demanding cadenza that leads directly into the finale.
• Brahms’ Violin Concerto – Joachim’s cadenza for the first movement is a staple, often performed over Brahms’ original notation (which actually leaves a fermata for an optional solo).

Timeline

• 1600s–1700s: Improvised cadenzas common in Baroque concerti (e.g., Vivaldi, Bach).
• 1750s–1800s: Mozart and early Beethoven often wrote cadenzas, but improvisation persisted.
• 1800s: Romantic era sees longer, more virtuosic cadenzas; composers like Liszt and Paganini push boundaries.
• Late 1800s: Brahms, Tchaikovsky, and others write cadenzas that are integral to the movement.
• 1900s: Some composers (e.g., Bartók) use cadenzas as expressive devices; others (e.g., Stravinsky) incorporate them in neoclassical works.
• Today: Historical performance practice encourages improvisation; modern performers often choose between written and improvised options.

Common Misconceptions

Many music lovers confuse cadenzas with other terms. A cadence is simply a harmonic close, while a coda is a concluding section after the final cadence. A cadenza is not necessarily a coda—it occurs before the final orchestral ritornello. Another misconception is that all cadenzas are improvised. In fact, many are fully composed, and even improvised ones follow a structured framework. Additionally, cadenzas are not exclusive to concerti; they appear in arias and even symphonic movements (e.g., the solo violin in Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique). Finally, some believe that a cadenza must be technically dazzling; however, some are introspective and lyrical, such as the cadenza in Beethoven’s Fourth Piano Concerto, which is quiet and meditative.

Legacy & Influence

The cadenza has influenced not only concerto composition but also performance practice. It demonstrates the symbiosis between composer and performer, highlighting the tension between written text and improvisation. Modern composers sometimes incorporate aleatoric (chance) elements into cadenzas, while jazz and popular music have adopted the idea of the “break” or solo episode. The cadenza also serves as a pedagogical tool: music students often study written cadenzas to understand improvisation and thematic development. In the 21st century, cadenzas remain a vibrant aspect of classical performance, with many performers continuing to improvise, respecting tradition while adding personal voice.

In essence, the cadenza is a testament to the living nature of classical music, bridging written composition and spontaneous performance. Whether written by a composer like Beethoven or improvised by a performer like Joshua Bell, it remains a moment of pure musical drama—a pinnacle of expressive and technical expression.